7. Conclusion générale

Notre mandat consistait à évaluer le soutien empirique à la pratique du profilage dans le contexte d’application défini par la Loi canadienne sur les droits de la personne. Nous avons ainsi exploré trois types de profilage : 1) le profilage criminel, 2) le profilage géographique et 3) le profilage prospectif.

Nous avons d’abord constaté, sur la base des recherches publiées, que l’efficacité systématique du profilage criminel n’avait pas été démontrée de façon empirique. Toutefois, nous ne pouvons pas conclure que cette pratique n’a aucun mérite : plutôt, les limites de la littérature existante ne permettent pas de généraliser les conclusions au contexte canadien, où les profileurs sont formés par l’ICIAF plutôt qu’autoproclamés. La position des tribunaux nous paraît donc raisonnable : le profilage peut possiblement être perçu comme un art utile au processus d’enquête policière, mais il ne peut prétendre présentement au statut de science. Nous recommandons donc que les méthodes d’inférence soient formalisées, qu’elles mènent à l’identification d’indicateurs de rendement et à des recherches empiriques visant à en évaluer l’efficacité réelle.

Le profilage géographique, pour sa part, dispose d’efforts de conceptualisation plus substantiels et d’appuis empiriques solides quant à une partie de son application, soit la réduction de l’aire de recherche à partir des coordonnées géographiques des scènes de crimes. Par contre, l’étape préalable à la constitution du profil géographique lui-même, l’attribution d’une série de crimes à un même contrevenant, dépend de la validité des inférences faites sur le plan du profilage criminel, plus précisément de l’analyse de liens (linkage analysis). Les recherches recensées omettent de vérifier dans quelle mesure les analystes s’acquittent de cette tâche avec succès. L’efficacité réelle du profilage géographique dans la procédure d’enquête policière demeure donc encore partiellement inexplorée. Nous recommandons, dans ce cas, la standardisation des procédures de sélection et d’entrée des paramètres géographiques ainsi que l’extension des activités de recherche à l’évaluation du taux de réussite dans l’association des crimes à un même contrevenant en présence de conditions fidèles à la pratique authentique du profilage géographique (abondance de scènes de crimes de multiples contrevenants, répartition temporelle étendue, etc.).

Enfin, le profilage prospectif doit être scindé en deux catégories : le profilage touchant des événements fréquents pour lesquels il est possible de compiler des statistiques et celui traitant d’événements très rares (low base-rate) pour lesquels il est difficile de tracer un portrait statistique fiable des auteurs. Dans le premier cas, il a été clairement démontré que l’approche clinique ou le simple profilage heuristique s’avérait inefficace. Ce constat a rapidement mené à l’adoption de mesures actuarielles d’évaluation du risque, qui se sont montrées nettement plus efficaces. L’application la mieux documentée à cet égard est l’évaluation de la dangerosité et du risque de récidive d’individus incarcérés. Notons que dans le cas du trafic de stupéfiants et de la récidive, la race ne s’est pas distinguée comme indicateur pertinent. L’utilisation du profilage racial a toutefois été scrutée de près dans le contexte de la lutte au trafic de stupéfiants. Les données les plus fiables dénotent, du moins aux États-Unis, une surveillance démesurée de certaines minorités ethniques par rapport à la proportion qu’elles représentent dans la population ou à leur taux de criminalité. Le caractère contreproductif de cette pratique a aussi été souligné. Cette association entre criminalité et origine ethnique proviendrait davantage de profils heuristiques ad hoc que d’instruments valides d’évaluation actuarielle du risque. En l’absence d’appuis scientifiques quant à l’association entre appartenance à un groupe ethnique et criminalité et vu l’opposition directe du profilage raciale et de l’esprit de la Loi, cette pratique ne s’avère pas justifiée dans les contextes explorés. L’animosité entre les citoyens et l’État de même que le stigma social qui résulteraient du profilage constituent des répercussions suffisantes pour justifier cette position.

Dans le deuxième cas, celui d’événements particulièrement rares comme les fusillades scolaires et les attentats terroristes, aucune recherche empirique n’a pu être recensée pour soutenir l’emploi du profilage ou de l’évaluation actuarielle du risque. Au regard des recherches connexes sur des événements mieux documentés et plus fréquents, il est permis de postuler que l’approche actuarielle serait préférable à un profilage prospectif basé sur des critères heuristiques, et c’est ce que les agences de sécurité reflètent sur le plan de leurs pratiques. Toutefois, même l’approche actuarielle nous semble, dans un tel contexte, susceptible de connaître des ratés importants parce qu’appuyée sur une base factuelle relativement pauvre. Précisément, elle nous semble vulnérable aux événements jugés statistiquement improbables à l’aune de ses critères et, dans le cas du terrorisme, à diverses formes de substitution. Un dilemme important surgit ici entre la sécurité nationale et les droits et libertés de la personne. Dans une optique prospective où les personnes ciblées n’ont pas encore commis le crime duquel elles sont néanmoins soupçonnées, la logique et la justice dictent que la base de ces soupçons doit être particulièrement solide afin de justifier l’atteinte préemptive aux droits de la personne qui en résulte. Or, dans le cas d’événements rares, tels le terrorisme, c’est l’opposé qui est observé : les bases empiriques sont absentes de la littérature scientifique. Les conséquences pouvant s’avérer catastrophiques pour l’individu ciblé, le recours à la prudence est de mise de la part des agences. Or, une autre question émerge alors : quels sont les moyens efficaces disponibles aux agences de sécurité pour mener à bien leur mission de protection tout en respectant l’esprit et la lettre de la loi? Nos recherches n’apportent pas de réponse, mais le général à la retraite du Corps de marines des États-Unis (USMC) et ex-commandant en chef du Central Command (CENTCOM) Anthony Zinni était d’avis que le combat contre le terrorisme reposait sur le renseignement et les relations diplomatiques avec les pays abritant les organisations terroristes (Priest, 2003). À ce chapitre, nous recommandons donc que l’accent soit mis sur l’acquisition de renseignements crédibles, pertinents et à jour, sur l’évaluation, lorsque possible, du rendement des outils actuariels et sur l’élaboration de balises éthiques à l’ utilisation de l’évaluation du risque dans le cas d’événements rares.

Bibliographie

Ægisdóttir, S., White, M. J., Spengler, P. M., Maugherman, A. S., Anderson, L. A., Cook, R. S., Nichols, C. S., Lampropoulos, G. K., Walker, B. S., Cohen, G. et J. D. Rush . The meta-analysis of clinical judgement project: Fifty-six years of accumulated research on clinical versus statistical prediction, The Counselling Psychologist, vol. 34, no 3, p. 341-382, 2006.

Agrapart-Delmas, M. De l’expertise criminelle au profilage. Une psychocriminologue sur la piste des grands meurtriers et en guerre contre les pseudo-profilers, Lausanne, Suisse, Favre, 2001.

Ainsworth, P. B. Offender Profiling and Crime Analysis,Cullompton, R.-U., Willan Publishing, 2001.

Alba, R. D., Logan, J. R. et P. E. Bellair. Living with crime: The implications of racial/ethnic differences in suburban location, Special Forces, vol. 73, no 2, p. 395-434, 1994.

Alison, L., Bennell, C., Mokros, A. et D. Omerod. The personality paradox in offender profiling: A theoretical review of the processes involved in deriving background characteristics from crime scene actions, Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, vol. 8, n o 1, p. 115-135, 2002.

Alison, L., West, A. et A. Goodwill. The academic and the practitioner, Pragmatists’ views of offender profiling, Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, vol. 10, no 1/2, p. 71-101, 2004.

Armor, D. A. et S. E. Taylor. When predictions fail: The dilemma of unrealistic optimism, dans T. Gilovich, D. Griffin et D. Kahneman, (dir.), Heuristics and Biases, The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, p. 334-347, New York, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Arthur, J. A. Socioeconomic predictors of crime in rural Georgia, Criminal Justice Review, vol. 16, no 1, p. 29-41, 1991.

Ask, K. et P. A. Granhag. Motivational sources of confirmation bias in criminal investigations: The need for cognitive closure, Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, no 2, p. 43-63, 2005.

Awad, G. E. et E. B. Saunders. Male adolescent sexual assaulters: Clinical observations, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 6, no 4, p. 446-460, 1991.

Bahdi, R. No exit: Racial profiling and Canada’s war against terrorism, Osgoode Hall Law Journal, vol. 41, nos 2 et 3, p. 293-316, 2003.

Bailey, K. A. Legal implications of profiling students for violence, Psychology in the Schools, vol. 38, no 2, p. 141-155, 2001.

Barak-Erez, D. Terrorism and profiling: Shifting the focus from criteria to effects, Tel Aviv University Law Faculty Papers, p. 91, 2008.

Barbaree, H. J., Seyo, M. C., Langton, C. M. et E. J. Peacock. Evaluating the predictive accuracy of six risk assessment instruments for adult sex offenders, Criminal justice and behaviour, vol. 28, n o 4, p. 490-521, 2001.

Bartosh, D. L., Garby, T., Lewis, D. et S. Gray. Differences in the predictive validity of actuarial risk assessments in relation to sex offender type, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 47, no 4, p. 422-438, 2003.

Batton, C. et C. Kadleck. Theoretical and methodological issues in racial profiling research, Police Quarterly, vol. 7, no 1, p. 30-64, 2004.

Beauregard, É. Et J. Proulx. Le profilage. Évolution et nouvelles perspectives dans l’ établissement de modèles prédictifs, Revue internationale de police criminelle, no 486, p. 20-28, 2001.

Beauregard, E. et K. Rossmo. Profilage géographique et analyse des tactiques de chasse chez les agresseurs sexuels sériels, dans M. St-Yves et M. Tanguay (dir.), Psychologie de l’enquête criminelle, La recherche de la vérité (p. 577-605), Cowansville (Québec), Yvon Blais, 2007.

Beauregard, E., Lussier, P. et J. Proulx. The role of sexual interests and situational factors on rapists' modus operandi: Implications for offender profiling, Legal and Criminological Psychology, vol. 10, no 2, p. 265-278, 2005.

Beauregard, É., Proulx, J., Rossmo, K., Leclerc, B. et J.-F. Allaire. Script analysis of the hunting process of serial sex offenders, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 34, no 8, p. 1069-1084, 2007.

Beauregard, E., Rossmo, D. K. et J. Proulx. A descriptive model of the hunting process of serial sex offenders: A rational choice perspective, Journal of Family Violence, no 22, p. 449-463, 2007.

Becker, S. Assessing the use of profiling in searches by law enforcement personnel, Journal of Criminal Justice, no 23, p. 103-193, 2004.

Beech, A., Fisher, D. et T. Ward. Sexual murderers' implicit theories, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2005, no 20, p. 1366-1389.

Béliveau, P. et M. Vauclair. Traité général de preuve et de procédure pénales (14e éd.), Montréal (Québec), Thémis, 2007.

Bénézech, M. et le Groupe Analyse Comportementale (GAC) de la Gendarmerie Nationale Française. Protocole d’Analyse comportementale des crimes violents, dans M. St-Yves et M. Tanguay, Psychologie de l ’enquête criminelle, La recherche de la vérité (p. 535-575), Cowansville (Québec), Yvon Blais, 2007.

Bennell, C. et D. V. Canter. Linking commercial burglaries by modus operandi: tests using regression and ROC analysis, Science & Justice, vol. 42, no 3, p. 153-164, 2002.

Bennell, C. et N. J. Jones. Between a ROC and a hard place: A method for linking serial burglaries by modus operandi, Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, no 2, p. 23-41, 2005.

Bennell, C. et S. Corey. Geographic profiling of terrorist attacks, dans R. N. Kocsis, (dir.), Criminal Profiling: International Theory, Research, and Practice (p. 189-203), Totowa, New Jersey, Humana Press Inc., 2007.

Bennell, C., Jones, N. J., Taylor, P. J. et B. Snook. Validities and abilities in criminal profiling: A critique of the studies conducted by Richard Kocsis and his colleagues, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 50, no 3, p. 344-360, 2006.

Bennell, C., Snook, B., Taylor, P. J., Corey, S. et J. Keyton. It’s no riddle, choose the middle. The effect of crimes topographical detail on police officer predictions of serial burglars’ home location, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 34, no 1, p. 119-132, 2007.

Berlinger, L., Schram, D., Miller, L. L. et C. Darling Milloy. A sentencing alternative for sex offenders: A case study of decision making and recidivism, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 10, no 4, p. 487-502, 1995.

Birzer, M. L. et G. H. Birzer. Race matters: A critical look at racial profiling, it’s a matter for the courts, Journal of Criminal Justice, no 34, p. 643-651, 2006.

Blanchette, C., St-Yves, M. et J. Proulx. Les agresseurs sexuels. Motivation, modus operandi et habitudes de vie, dans M. St-Yves et M. Tanguay (dir.), Psychologie de l’ enquête criminelle, La recherche de la vérité (p. 445-463), Cowansville (Québec), Éditions Yvon Blais, 2007.

Bonta, J., Pang, B. et S. Wallace-Carpetta. Predictors of recidivism among incarcerated female offenders, The Prison Journal, vol. 75, no 3, p. 277-294, 1995.

Borum, R. Understanding the terrorist mind-set, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, vol. 72, no 7 , p. 7-10, 2003.

Brantingham, P. J. et P. L. Brantingham. Environmental Criminology, Long Grove, Illinois, Waveland Press, 1990.

Brown, S. L. et A. E. Forth. Psychopathy and sexual assault: Static risk factors, emotional precursors, and rapist subtypes, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, vol. 6 5, no 5, p. 848-857, 1997.

Brussels, J. A. Casebook of a Crime Psychiatrist, Washington, DC, Library of Congress, 1968.

Burns, M. K., Dean, V. J. et S. Jacob-Timm. Assessment of violence potential among school children: Beyond profiling, Psychology in the Schools, vol. 38, no 3, p. 239-247, 2001.

Canter, D. V. Confusing operational predicaments and cognitive explorations: Comments on Rossmo and Snook et coll, Applied Cognitive Psychology, no 19, p. 663-668, 2005.

Canter, D. V. Criminal Shadows. Londres, R.-U., HarperCollins, 1994.

Canter, D. V. et P. Larkin. The environmental range of serial rapists, Journal of Environmental Psychology, no 13, p. 63-69, 1993.

Canter, D. V., Bennell, C., Alison, L. J. et S. Reddy. Differentiating sex offences: A behaviorally based thematic classification of stranger rapes, Behavioral Sciences and the Law, no 21, p. 157-174, 2003.

Canter, D. V., Coffey, T., Huntley, M. et C. Missen. Predicting serial killers’ home base using a decision support system, Journal of Quantitative Criminology, vol. 16, no 4, p. 457-478, 2000.

Catchpole, R. H. et H. Gretton. The predictive validity of risk assessment with violent young offenders: A 1-year examination of criminal outcome, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 30, no 6, p. 688-708, 2003.

Cauley, J. et E. Im. Intervention policy analysis of skyjackings and other terrorist incidents, American Economic Review, no 78, p. 27-31, 1988.

Chandras, K. V. The profile of a school shooter and prevention strategies, Georgia School Counselors Association Journal, vol. 2 , no 2, p. 58-63, 2001.

Chapman, G. B. et E. J. Johnson. Incorporating the irrelevant: Anchors in judgments of belief and value, dans T. Gilovich, D. Griffin et D. Kahneman, (dir.), Heuristics and Biases, The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, p. 120-138, New York, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Cohen, S. Visions of Social Control: Crime, Punishment and Classification, Cambridge, Massachussetts, Polity Press, 1985.

Cook, P.E. et D. L. Hinman. Criminal profiling, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, vol. 15, no 3, p. 230-241, 1999.

Copson, G. Coals to Newcastle? Part 1: A Study of Offender Profiling, Londres, R.-U., Home Office Police Department, 1995.

Copson, G., Badcock, R., Boon, J. et P. Britton. Editorial: Articulating a systematic approach to clinical crime profiling, Criminal Behavioral and Mental Health, no 7, p. 13-17, 1997.

Cornell University Law School. The Constitution of the United States of America, 2008, consulté en ligne le 25-07-2008 : www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/constitution.billofrights.html#amendmentv

Côté, G. Les instruments d’évaluation du risque de comportements violents : mise en perspective critique, Criminologie, vol. 34, no 1, p. 31-45, 2001.

Cottle, C. C., Lee, R. J. et K. Heilbrun. The prediction of criminal recidivism in juveniles: A meta-analysis, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 28, no 3, p. 367-394, 2001.

Cour d’appel de l’Ontario. R. c. Clark, dossier no C32246, 2004.

Cour d’appel de l’Ontario. R. c. Klymchuk, dossier no C38022, 2005.

Cour d’appel de l’Ontario. R. c. Ranger, dossier no C31117, 2003.

COUR SUPÉRIEURE DE JUSTICE DE L’Ontario. R. v. Klymchuk, No CRIMJP 670/06, 2008.

Cour supérieure du Québec, chambre criminelle. R. c. Croteau, no 505-01-036531-024, 2004.

Cour suprême du Canada. R. v. J.-L. J., 2 S.C.R. 600. No 26830, 2000.

Cour suprême du Canada. R. v. Mohan, 2 S.C.R. 9. No 23063, 1994.

Court of Appeals of Ohio. State v. Lowe, no 8-91-6. 75 Ohio App. 3d 404; 599 N.E.2d 783, 1991.

Court of Appeals of Ohio. State v. Roquemore, dossier no 92AP-356. 85 Ohio App. 3d 448; 620 N.E.2d 110, 1993.

Court of Criminal Appeals of Alabama. Simmons v. State, CR-97-0768. 797 So.2d 1134, 2000.

Court of Criminal Appeals of Tennessee. State v. Stevens, appel no 98-A-825, M1999-02067-CCA-R3-DD, 2001.

Cronin, A. K. Terrorists and Suicide Attacks, Washington, DC, CRS Report for Congress, 2003.

Crosby, F., Bromley, S. et L. Saxe. Recent unobtrusive studies of black and white discrimination and prejudices: A literature review, Psychological Bulletin, no 87, p. 546-563, 1980.

Dabney, D. A., Dugan, L., Topalli, V. et R. C. Hollinger. The impact of implicit stereotyping on offender profiling: Unexpected results from an observational study of shoplifting, Criminal Justice and behaviour, 2006, vol. 33, no 5, p. 646-674, 2006 .

Dabney, D. A., Hollinger, R. C. et L. Dugan. Who actually steals? A study of covertly observed shoplifters, Justice Quarterly, vol. 21, n o 4, p. 693-728, 2004.

Daniels, J. A. Assessing threats of school violence: Implications for counsellors, Journal of Counseling & Development, no 80, p. 215-218, 2002.

Davis, J. A. Criminal Personality Profiling and Crime Scene Assessment: A Contemporary Investigative Tool to Assist Law Enforcement Public Safety, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, vol. 15, no 3, p. 291-301, 1999.

Davis, R. H. Cruising for trouble: Gang-related drive-by shootings, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, vol. 65, n o 1, p. 16, 1995.

Dawes, R. M., Faust, D. et P. E. Meehl. Clinical versus actuarial judgment, dans T. Gilovich, D. Griffin ET D. Kahneman, (dir.), Heuristics and Biases, The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, p. 716-729, New York, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Dean, G. The 'Cross+Check' system: Integrating profiling approaches for police and security investigations, Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, vol. 20 , no 2, p. 20-43, 2005.

Dietz, P. E. Sex offender profiling by the FBI: A preliminary conceptual model, dans M. H. Ben-Aron, S. J. Hucher et C. D. Webster (dir.), Clinical Criminology (p. 207-219), Toronto (Ontario), M and M Graphics, 1985.

District of Columbia Circuit Court. Frye vs. United States, 293 F. 1013. DC Cir 1923, 1923.

Dixon, L., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. et K. Browne. Classifying partner femicide, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 23, no 1, p. 74-93, 2008.

Dolan, M. et M. Doyle. Violence risk prediction, Clinical and actuarial measures and the role of the Psychopathy Checklist, British Journal of Psychiatry, no 177, p. 303-311, 2000.

Douglas J. E. et C. Munn. Violent crime scene analysis: Modus operandi, signature, and staging, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, February 1992, no 1-10, 1992.

Douglas, J. E., Burgess, A. W., Burgess, A. G. et R. K. Ressler. Crime Classification Manual, A Standard System for Investigating and Classifying Violent Crimes (2e éd.), San Francisco, Californie, Jossey-Bass, 2006.

Dunham, R. G., Alpert, G. P., Stroshine, M. S. et K. Bennett. Transforming citizens into suspects: Factors that influence the formation of police suspicion, Police Quarterly, vol. 8, no 3, p. 366-393, 2005.

Dunning, D., Meyerowitz, J. A. et A. D. Holzberg. Ambiguity and self-evaluation: The role of idiosyncratic trait definitions in self-serving assessments of ability, dans T. Gilovich, D. Griffin et D. Kahneman, (dir.), Heuristics and Biases, The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, p. 324-333, New York, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Durlauf, S. N. Assessing racial profiling, The Economic Journal, no 116 (novembre), F402-F426, 2006.

Durlauf, S. N. Racial profiling as a public policy question : Efficiency, equity, and ambiguity, The American Economic Review, vol. 95, no 2, p. 132-136, 2005.

Egger, S. A. Psychological profiling, Past, present and future, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, vol. 15, no 3, p. 242-261, 1999.

Engel, R. S., Calnon, J. M. et T. J. Bernard. Theory and racial profiling: Shortcomings and future directions in research, Justice Quarterly, vol. 19, no 2, p. 249, 2002.

Farrington, R. T. Prediction in Criminology, Albany, New York, State University of New York Press, 1985.

Felson, M. et R. V. Clarke. Opportunity makes the thief, Practical theory for crime prevention, Police Research Series, 98, Londres, R.-U., Home Office, 1998.

Fey, G.-P. The perils of profiling, School Administrator, vol. 57, no 2, p. 12-14, 2000.

Fortin, F. et J. Roy. Cyberpédophilie : profils d’amateurs de pédopornographie, dans M. St-Yves et M. Tanguay (dir.), Psychologie de l’enquête criminelle, La recherche de la vérité (p. 465-501), Cowansville (Québec), Éditions Yvon Blais, 2007.

Fox, J. A. et J. Levin. Firing back: The growing threat of workplace homicide, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 536, no 1, p. 16-30, 1994.

Fraser, S. Assurer la sécurité et l’ouverture de nos frontières – Agence des services frontaliers du Canada, dans S. Fraser, 2007 octobre – Rapport de la vérificatrice générale du Canada, Ottawa (Ontario), Bureau du vérificateur général du Canada, 2007.

Fritzon, K., Canter, D.V. et Z. Wilton. The application of an action system model to destructive behaviour: The examples of arson and terrorism, Behavioral Sciences and the Law, no 19, p. 657-690, 2001.

Furr, K. D. Prediction of sexual or violent recidivism among sexual offenders: A comparison of prediction instruments, Annals of Sex Research, no 6, p. 271-286, 1993.

Gabbidon, S. L., Marzette, L. N. et S. A. Peterson. Racial profiling and the courts, An empirical analysis of federal litigation, 1991 to 2006, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, vol. 23, no 3, p. 226-238, 2007.

Gabor, T. Inflammatory rhetoric on racial profiling can undermine police services, Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, vol. 46, no 4, p. 457-466, 2004.

Gaines, L. K. An analysis of traffic stop data in Riverside, California, Police Quarterly, vol. 9, no 2, p. 210-233, 2006.

Gendreau, P., Goggin, C. et T. Little. Predicting Adult Offender Recidivism: What Works! Ottawa (Ontario), Travaux publics et Services gouvernementaux Canada, 1996.

Gerber, J. et E. J. Fritsch. Prison Education and Offender Behavior: A Review of the Scientific Literature, Prison Education Research Project: Report 1, Huntsville, Texas, Sam Houston University, Criminal Justice Center, 1993.

Gigerenzer, G. et P. M. Todd. Simple Heuristics that Make Us Smart, Oxford, New York, Oxford University Press, 1999.

Gilbert, D. T. Inferential correction, dans T. Gilovich, D. Griffin et D. Kahneman, (dir.), Heuristics and Biases, The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, p. 167-184, New York, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Glaser, J. The efficacy and effect of racial profiling: A mathematical simulation approach, Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, vol. 25, no 2, p. 395-41, 2006.

Glicksohn, J., Ben-Shalom, U. et M. Lazar. Elements of unacceptable risk taking in combat units: An exercise in offender profiling, Journal of Research in Personality, no 38, p. 203-215, 2004.

Glover, K. S. Police discourse on racial profiling, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, vol. 23, no 3, p. 239-247, 2007.

Godefroid, F. Inventaris literatuur; Présentation GWSC, Correspondance, 1er septembre 2008, Bruxelles, Belgique, Police Judiciaire Fédérale, 2008.

Godwin, G. M. Criminal psychology and forensic technology, A collaborative approach to effective profiling, Boca Raton, Floride, CRC Press, 2001.

Gold, A. D. Media hype, racial profiling, and good science, Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, vol. 45, no 3, p. 391-399, 2003.

Goldston, J. Ethnic Profiling and Counter-Terrorism, Trends, Danger and Alternative, document présenté par la Open Society Justice Initiative (projet de justice Société ouverte) au Anti-Racism and Diversity Intergroup (groupe sur la diversité et la lutte contre le racisme), Parlement européen, 6 juin 2006, Bruxelles, Belgique, 2006. Consulté le 30 juillet 2008 à l’adresse: http://snap.archivum.ws/dspace/bitstream/10039/6584/1/Ethnic_Profiling.pdf

Goodwill, A. M. et L. J. Alison. Sequential angulation, spatial dispersion and consistency of distance attack patterns from home in serial murder, rape and burglary, Psychology, Crime & Law, no 11, p. 161-176, 2005.

Goodwill, A. M. et L. J. Alison. When is profiling possible? Offense planning and aggression as moderators in predicting offender age from victim age in stranger rape, Behavioral Sciences and the Law, vol. 25, no 6, p. 823-840, 2007.

Gough, H. G., Wenk, E. A. et V. V. Rozynko. Parole outcome as predicted from the CPI, the MMPI, and a Base Expectancy Table, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, no 70, p. 432- 441, 1965.

Gouvernement du Canada, Ministère de la Justice. Loi canadienne sur les droits de la personne, L.R., 1985, ch. H-6, 1985.

Gouvernement du Canada, Ministère de la Sécurité publique. Entités inscrites actuellement, 2008. Consulté en ligne le 19 août 2008 à l’URL : http://www.securitepublique.gc.ca/prg/ns/le/cle-fra.aspx

Grann, M. et N. Långström. Actuarial assessment of violence risk, To weigh or not to weigh? Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 34, no 1, p. 22-36, 2007.

Grann, M., Belfrage, H. et A. Tengström. Actuarial assessment of risk for violence: Predictive validity of the VRAG and the historical part of the HCR-20, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 27, no 1, p. 97-114, 2000.

Gray, N. S., Watt, A., Hassan, S. et M. J. MacCulloch. Behavioral indicators of sadistic sexual murder predict the presence of sadistic sexual fantasy in a normative sample, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 18, no 9, p. 1018-1034, 2003.

Gretton, H. M., McBride, M., Hare, R. D., O’Shaughnessy, R. et G. Kumka. Psychopathy and recidivism in adolescent sex offenders, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 28, no 4, p. 427-449, 2001.

Griffin, D. et A. Tversky. The weighing of evidence and the determinants of confidence, dans T. Gilovich, D. Griffin et D. Kahneman, (dir.), Heuristics and Biases, The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, p. 230-249, New York, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Gross, S. R. et D. Livingston. Racial profiling under attack, Columbia Law Review, vol. 102, no 5, p. 101-126, 2003.

Gross, S. R. et K. Y. Barnes. Road work: Racial profiling and drug interdiction on the highways, Michigan Law Review, vol. 101, no 1, p. 651-754, 2007.

Groupe de travail sur le traitement des crimes en série. Rapport du Groupe de travail sur le traitement des crimes en série, Paris, France, Direction des affaires criminelles et des grâces, 2006.

Hagan, M. et R. P. King. Recidivism rates of youth completing an intensive treatment program in a juvenile correctional facility, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 36, no 4, p. 349-358, 1992.

Hanson, R. K. et M. T. Brussière. Predicting relapse: A meta-analysis of sexual offender recidivism studies, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, vol. 66, no 2, p. 348-362, 1998 .

Hanson, R. K., Scott, H. et R. Steffy. A comparison of child molesters and nonsexual criminals: Risk predictors and long-term recidivism, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, vol. 32, no 3, p. 325-337, 1995.

Hanson, R. K., Steffy, R. A. et R. Gauthier. Long-term recidivism of child molesters, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, no 61, p. 646-652, 1993 .

Harbort, S. et A. Mokros. Serial murderers in Germany from 1945 to 1995: A descriptive study, Homicide Studies, vol. 5, n o 4, p. 311-334, 2001.

Harcourt, B. E. Against Prediction: Profiling, Policing, and Punishing in an Actuarial age, Chicago, Illinois, University of Chicago Press, 2007.

Harcourt, B. E. Muslim Profiles Post 9/11: Is Racial Profiling an Effective Counterterrorist Measure and Does It Violate the Right to be Free from Discrimination? document présenté au colloque sur la sécurité et les droits de la personne à l’Université d’Oxford, mars 2006.

Harcourt, B. E. The shaping of chance: Actuarial models and criminal profiling at the turn of the twenty-first century, The University of Chicago Law Review, no 70, p. 105-128, 2003.

Harris, G. T. et M. E. Rice. Characterizing the value of actuarial violence risk assessment, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 34, no 12, p. 1638-1658, 2007.

Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E. et C. A. Cormier. Psychopathy and violent recidivism, Law and Human behaviour, vol. 15, no 6, p. 625-637, 1991.

Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E. et V. L. Quinsey. Violent recidivism of mentally disordered offenders: The development of a statistical prediction instrument, Criminal Justice and Behaviour, vol. 20, no 4, p. 315-335, 1993.

Hart, J. L., Larsen, A., Litton, K. S. et L. J. Sullivan. Racial profiling: At what price? Journal of Forensic Psychology Practice, vol. 3, no 2, p. 79-88, 2003.

Hazelwood, R. R. et J. I. Warren. The sexually violent offender: Impulsive or ritualistic? Aggression and Violent Behavior, vol. 5, no 3, p. 267-279, 2000.

Hazelwood, R. R., Dietz, P. E. et J. Warren. The criminal sexual sadist, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, février 1992.

Hepburn, J.R. et C. CA. Albonetti. Recidivism among drug offenders: A survival analysis of the effects of offender characteristics, type of offence, and two types of intervention, Journal of Quantitative Criminology, vol. 10, no 2, p. 159-179, 1994.

Hicks, S. J. et B. D. Sales. Criminal Profiling, Developing an Effective Science and Practice, Washington, DC, American Psychological Association, 2006.

Holmes, R.M. et S. T. Holmes. Profiling Violent Crimes: An investigative Tool (2e éd.), Thousand Oaks, Californie, Sage, 1996.

Holmes, R.M. Stalking in America: Types and methods of criminal stalkers, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, vol. 9, no 4, p. 317-327, 1993.

Homant, R. J. et D. B. Kennedy. Psychological aspects of crime scene profiling, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 25, n o 3, p. 319-343, 1998.

Hoover, E. Colleges grapple with the « behavioral broken arm », The Chronicle of Higher Education, vol. 54, no 32, p. A10, 2008.

Horton, A. Violent crimes and racial profiling: What the evidence suggests, Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, vol. 6, no 4, p. 87-106, 2002.

Hudson, R. A. The Sociology and Psychology or Terrorism: Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why? Washington, DC, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1999.

Ingram, J. I. The effect of neighborhood characteristics on traffic citation practices of the police, Police Quarterly, vol. 10, no 4, p. 371-393, 2007.

International Criminal Investigative Analysis Fellowship. Understudy Program –Revised, ICIAF, 2005.

Ioimo, R., Tears, R. S., Meadows, L. A., Becton, J. B. et M. T. Charles. The police view of bias-based policing, Police Quarterly, vol. 10, no 3, p. 270-287, 2007.

Jackson, J. L. et D. A. Bekerian. Offender profiling, Theory, research and practice, Chicester, R.-U., John Wiley & Sons, 1997.

Juhnke, G. A., Charkow, W. B., Jordan, J., Curtis, R. C., Liles, R. G., Gmutza, B. M et J. R. Adams. Assessing potentially violent students, ERIC Digest, ED435894, 1999.

Juvonen, J. School Violence, Prevalence, Fears, and Prevention, document de discussion RAND, 2001.

Kahneman, D. et S. Frederick. Representativeness revisited: Attribute substitution in intuitive judgment, dans T. Gilovich, D. Griffin et D. Kahneman (dir), Heuristics and Biases, The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, p. 49-81, New York, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Kapardis, A. et M. Krambia-Kapardis. Enhancing fraud prevention and detection by profiling fraud offenders, Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, vol. 14, no 3, p. 189-201, 2004.

Karpinski, M. M. et C. Théroux. Dilemmes quant au fait d'assurer la sécurité nationale tout en protégeant les droits de la personne : point de vue de la Commission canadienne des droits de la personne, Ottawa (Ontario), Commission canadienne des droits de la personne, 2008.

Kaufman, F. Report of the Kaufman Commission on Proceedings Involving Guy Paul Morin, Toronto (Ontario), Queen’s Printer for Ontario, 1998.

Keppel, R. D. et R. Walter. Profiling killers: A revised classification model for understanding sexual murder, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 43, no 4, p. 417-437 , 1999.

Knight, R. A., Warren, J. I., Reboussin, R. et B. J. Soley. Predicting rapist type from crime-scene variables, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 25, no 1, p. 46-80, 1998.

Knowles, J., Persico, N. et P. Todd. Racial bias in motor vehicle searches: Theory and evidence, Journal of Political Economy, vol. 109, no 1, p. 203-229, 2001.

Kocsis, R N., Irwin, H. J., Hayes, A. F. et R. Nunn. Expertise in psychological profiling, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 15, no 3, p. 311-331, 2000.

Kocsis, R. N. An empirical assessment of content in criminal psychological profiles, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 47, no 1, p. 37-46, 2003a.

Kocsis, R. N. Criminal psychological profiling: Validities and abilities, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 47, no 2, p. 126-144, 2003b.

Kocsis, R. N. et A. F. Hayes. Believing is seeing? Investigating the perceived accuracy of criminal psychological profiles, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 48, no 2, p. 149-160 , 2004.

Kocsis, R. N. et G. B. Palermo. Contemporary problems in criminal profiling, dans R. N. Kocsis (dir.), Criminal Profiling: International Theory, Research, and Practice (p. 327-345), Totowa, New Jersey, Humana Press Inc., 2007.

Kocsis, R. N. et G. Z. Heller. Believing is seeing II: Beliefs and perceptions of criminal psychological profiles, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, no 48, p. 313-329, 2004.

Kocsis, R. N. et J. Middledorp. Believing is seeing III: Perceptions of content in criminal psychological profiles, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 4 8, no 4, p. 477-494, 2004.

Kocsis, R. N. et R. W. Cooksey. Criminal psychological profiling of serial arson crimes, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 46, no 6, p. 631-656, 2002.

Kocsis, R. N. Psychological profiling of serial arson offences: An assessment of skills and accuracy, Criminal Justice and Behavior, no 31, p. 341-361, 2004.

Kocsis, R. N. Skills and accuracy in criminal profiling, dans R. N. Kocsis (dir.), Criminal Profiling: International Theory, Research, and Practice (p. 365-382), Totowa, New Jersey, Humana Press Inc., 2007.

Kocsis, R. N. Validities and abilities in criminal profiling, The dilemma for David Canter’s investigative psychology, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 50, no 4, p. 458-477, 2006.

Kocsis, R. N., Hayes, A. F. et H. J. Irwin. Investigative experience and accuracy in psychological profiling of a violent crime, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 17, no 8, p. 811-823, 2002.

Kocsis, R., Middledorp, J. et A. C. Try. Cognitive processes in criminal profile construction: A preliminary study, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 49, no 6, p. 662-681, 2005.

LaBrode, R. T. Etiology of the psychopathic serial killer: An analysis of antisocial personality disorder, psychopathy, and serial killer personality and crime scene characteristics, Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, vol. 7, no 2, p. 151-160, 2007.

LaFee, S. Profiling bad apples, School Administrator, vol. 57, no 2, p. 6-11, 2001.

Lalumière, M. L. et V. L. Quinsey. The discriminability of rapists from non-sex offenders using phallometric measures, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 21, no 1, p. 150-175, 1994.

Land, K. C., McCall, P. L. et L. E. Cohen. Characteristics of U.S. cities with extreme (high or low) crime rates: Results of discriminant analyses of 1960, 1970, and 1980 Data, Social Indicators Research, no 24, p. 209-231, 1991.

Latour, É., Van Allen, J., Lépine, M. et P. Nezan. Le profilage criminel, dans M. St-Yves et M. Tanguay (dir.) Psychologie de l’enquête criminelle, La recherche de la vérité (p. 503-5 33), Cowansville (québec), Éditions Yvon Blais, 2007.

Laukkanen, M. et P. Santtila. Predicting the residential location of serial robbers, Forensic Science International, no 157, p. 71-82, 2006.

Lavergne, G. The legacy of the Texas Tower sniper, The Chronicle of Higher Education, vol. 53, no 34, p. A22, 2007.

Lee, J. K. P., Jackson, H. J., Pattison, P. et T. Ward. Developmental risk factors for sexual offending, Child Abuse & Neglect, no 26, p. 73-92, 2002.

Lee, Y., Bumgarner, J., Widner, R. et Z. Luo. Psychological models of stereotyping and profiling in law enforcement: How to increase accuracy by using more non-racial cues, Journal of Crime and Justice, vol. 30, no 1, p. 87-129, 2007.

Lever, A. Why racial profiling is hard to justify: A response to Risse and Zeckhauser, Philosophy & Public Affairs, vol. 33, no 1, p. 94-110, 2005.

Levi-Minzi, M. et M. Shields. Serial sexual murderers and prostitutes as their victims: Difficulty profiling perpetrators and victim vulnerability as illustrated by the Green River case, Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, vol. 7, no 1, p. 77-89, 2007.

Liberton, M., Silverman, M. et W. R. Blount. Predicting probation success for the first-time offender, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 36, no 4, p. 335-347, 1992.

Lidz, C., Mulvey, E. et W. Gardner. The accuracy of predictions of violence to others, Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 269, no 8, p. 1007-1011, 1993.

Liederbach, J., Trulson, C. R., Fritsch, E. J., Caeti, T. J. et R. W. Taylor. Racial profiling and the political demand for data, A pilot study designed to improve methodologies in Texas, Criminal Justice Review, vol. 32, n o 2, p. 101-120, 2007.

Lines, K. J. Criminal profiling research project, 2007. Correspondance provenant du Bureau de soutien aux enquêtes, Police provinciale de l’Ontario, 5 mai 2008).

Lum, C., Kennedy, L. W. et A. Sherley. Are counter-terrorism strategies effective? The results of the Campbell systematic review on counter-terrorism evaluation research, Journal of Experimental Criminology, vol. 2, no 4, p. 489-516, 2006.

Lumsden, L. Profiling students for violence, ERIC Digest Number 139, ED 446344, 2000.

Mak, A. S. Psychosocial control characteristics of delinquents and nondelinquents, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 18, no 3, p. 287-303, 1991.

Mamalian, C. A. et N. G. La Vigne. The Use of Computerized Crime Mapping by Law Enforcement: Survey Results (NIJ Publication), Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1999.

Marin, J. C. Analyse criminelle et analyse comportementale, Rapport du groupe de travail interministériel, Paris, France, ministère de la Justice, 2003.

McCall, G. J. Risk factors and sexual assault prevention, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 8, no 2, p. 277-295, 1993.

McCann, J. T. Threats in School, A Practical Guide for Managing Violence, Binghamton, New York, The Haworth Press, 2002.

McGrath, M.G. Criminal profiling: Is there a role for the forensic psychiatrist? Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law, no 28, p. 315-324, 2000.

Meehan, A. J. et M. C. Ponder. Race and place: The ecology of racial profiling African American motorists, Justice Quarterly, vol. 19, n o 3, p. 399-430, 2002.

Meloy, M. L. The sex offender next door: An analysis of recidivism, risk factors, and deterrence of sex offenders on probation, Criminal Justice Policy Review, vol. 16, no 2, p. 211-236, 2005.

Miller, L. The terrorist mind. II. Typologies, psychopathologies, and practical guidelines for investigation, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 50, no 3, p. 255-268, 2006.

Monahan, J. Violence prediction, The past twenty and the next twenty years, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 23, no 1, p. 107-120, 1996.

Mossman, D. Assessing predictions of violence: Being accurate about accuracy, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, vol. 62, no 4, p. 783-792, 1994.

Muller, D. A. Criminal profiling: Real science or just wishful thinking? Homicide Studies, vol. 4, no 3, p. 234-264, 2000.

Mulvey, E. P. et E. Cauffman. The inherent limits of predicting school violence, American Psychologist, vol. 56, no 10, p. 797-802, 2001.

Murphy, W. D. et J. M. Peters. Profiling child sexual abusers: Psychological considerations, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 19, no 1, p. 24-37, 1992.

National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crimes. National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crimes, Quantico, Virginie, FBI Academy, 2008.

Newman, K. S. Before the rampage: What can be done? The Chronicle of Higher Education, vol. 53, no 35, p. B20, 2007.

Norko, M. A. et M. V. Baranoski. The prediction of violence: Detection of dangerousness, Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, vol. 8, no 1, p. 73-91, 2007.

Novak, K. J. Disparity and racial profiling in traffic enforcement, Police Quarterly, vol. 7, no 1, p. 65-96, 2004.

Nykodym, N., Taylor, R. et J. Vilela. Criminal profiling and insider cyber crime, Digital Investigation, no 2, p. 261, 2005a.

Nykodym, N., Taylor, R. et J. Vileta. Criminal profiling and insider crime, Computer Law & Security Report, no 21, p. 408-414, 2005b.

O’Malley, P. Risks, ethics, and airport security, Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, vol. 48, no 3, p. 413-421, 2006.

O’Toole, M. E. Criminal profiling: The FBI Uses criminal investigative analysis to solve crimes, Corrections Today, vol. 61, no 1, p. 44-46, 1999.

O’Toole, M. E. The School Shooter: A Threat Assessment Perspective, Quantico, Virginie, Critical Incident Response Group (CIRG), 2000.

Oatley, G., Ewart, B. et J. Zeleznikow. Decision support systems for police: Lessons from the application of data mining techniques to « soft » forensic evidence, Artificial Intelligence and Law, no 14, p. 35-100, 2006.

Open Society Justice Initiative. Ethnic Profiling in Europe: Counter-Terrorism Activities and the Creation of Suspect Communities, présentation de l’Open Society Justice Initiative ( projet de justice Société ouverte) faite en juin 2007 devant le panel de juristes sur le terrorisme, la lutte contre le terrorisme et les droits de la personne de la Commission internationale de juristes, 2006. Consulté le 30 juillet de 2008 : http://www.ecre.org/files/Ethnic%20profiling%20in%20Europe%20English.pdf

Ormerod, D. C. The evidential implications of psychological profiling, Criminal Law Review, no 92, p. 863-877, 1996.

Osborn, D. R., Trickett, A. et R. Elder. Area characteristics and regional variates as determinant of area property crime levels, Journal of Quantitative Criminology, vol. 8, no 3, p. 265-285, 1992.

Parent, G., Guay, J.-P. et R. A. Knight. Évaluation de la validité prédictive de neuf instruments chez les agresseurs sexuels adultes, 2008. Manuscrit inédit (à soumettre) présenté au 76e Congrès annuel de l’ACFAS, 5 – 9 mai 2008, Québec (Québec).

Parker, K. F., Macdonald, J. M., Alpert, G. P., Smith, M. R.et A. R. Piquero. A contextual study of racial profiling: Assessing the theoretical rationale for the study of racial profiling at the local level, American Behavioral Scientist, vol. 47, no 7, p. 943-962, 2004.

Paulsen, D. J. Connecting the dots: assessing the accuracy of geographic profiling software, Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, vol. 29, no 2, p. 306-334, 2006.

Peters, J. M. et W. D. Murphy. Profiling child sexual abusers, Legal considerations, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 19, no 1, p. 38-53, 1992.

Peterson, R. D. et W. C. Bailey. Rape and dimensions of gender socioeconomic inequality in U.S. metropolitan areas, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, vol. 29, no 2, p. 162-177, 1992.

Pinizzotto, A. J. et N. J. Finkel. Criminal personality profiling: An outcome and process study, Law and Human Behavior, no 14, p. 215-233, 1990.

Pollock, P. H. A case of spree serial murder with suggested diagnostic opinions, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 39, no 3, p. 258-268, 1995.

Prentky, R. A., Knight, R. A., Lee, A. F. S. et D. D. Cerce. Predictive validity of lifestyle impulsivity for rapists, Criminal Justice and Behavior, no 22, p. 106-128, 1995.

Priest, D. The Mission, Waging War and Keeping Peace with America’s Military, New York, New York, Norton, 2003.

Proulx, J. et P. Lussier. La prédiction de la récidive chez les agresseurs sexuels, Criminologie, vol. 34, no 1, p. 9-29, 2001.

Quinsey, V. L., Harris, G. T., Rice, M. E. et M. L. Lalumière. Assessing treatment efficacy in outcome studies of sex offenders, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 8, no 4, p. 512-523, 1993.

Quinsey, V. L., Rice, M. E. et G. T. Harris. Actuarial prediction of sexual recidivism, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 10, no 1, p. 85-105, 1995.

Ramirez, D. A., Hoopes, J. et T. L. Quinlan. Defining racial profiling in a post-September 11 world, The American Criminal Law Review, vol. 40, no 3, p. 1195-1233, 2003.

Ratcliffe, J. H. Crime mapping and the training needs of law enforcement, European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, vol. 10, no 1, p. 65, 2004.

Reddy, M., Borum, R., Vossekuil, B., Fein, R., Berglund J. et W. Modzeleski . Evaluating Risk for Targeted Violence in Schools: Comparing Risk Assessment, Threat Assessment, and Other Approaches, Washington, DC, National Threat Assessment Center, 2000.

Rengert, G. F. The Geography of Illegal Drugs, Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press, 1996.

Rengert, G. F., Piquera, A.R. et P. R. Jones. Distance decay re-examined, Criminology, vol. 37, no 2, p. 427-445, 1999.

Ressler, R. K., Burgess, A. W., Douglas, J. E., Hartman, C. R. et R. D'Agostino. Sexual killers and their victims: Identifying patterns through crime scene analysis, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 1, no 3, p. 289-308, 1986.

Risse, M. et R. J. Zekhauser. Racial Profiling, KSG Working Paper Series No. RWP03-021, 2003.

Risse, M. Racial Profiling : A Response to Two Critics, KSG Working Paper No. RWP06-042, 2004.

Robbennolt, J. K. et M. S. Sobus. An integration of hindsight bias and counterfactual thinking: Decision-making and drug courier profiles, Law and Human Behavior, vol. 21, no 5, p. 539-560, 1997.

Robin, G. D. Inquisitive cops, investigative stops, and the drug courier hops: Returning to the scene of the crime, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, vol. 9, no 1, p. 41-59, 1993.

Rodney, H. E., Mupier, R. et B. Crafter. Predictors of alchohol drinking among African adolescents: Implications for violence prevention, The Journal of Negro Education, vol. 65, no 4, p. 434-444, 1996.

Rodriguez, O. et D. Weisburd. The integrated social control model and ethnicity, The case of Puerto Rican American delinquency, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 18, no 4, p. 464-479, 1991.

Rossmo, K. Geographic heuristics of shortcuts to failure? A response to Snook et coll. (2004), Applied Cognitive Psychology, no 19, p. 651-654, 2005.

Rossmo, K. Geographic Profiling, New York, New York, CRC Press, 2000.

Salfati, C. G. et A. L. Bateman. Serial homicide: An investigation of behavioural consistency, Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, vol. 2, no 2, p. 121-144, 2005.

Salfati, C. G. et D. V. Canter. Differentiating stranger murders: Profiling offender characteristics from behavioral style, Behavioral Sciences and the Law, no 17, p. 391-406, 1999.

Salfati, C. G. et J. Park. An analysis of Korean homicide crime-scene actions, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 22, no 11, p. 1448-1470, 2007.

Salfati, C. G. The nature of expressiveness and instrumentality in homicide, Implications for offender profiling, Homicide Studies, vol. 4, no 3, p. 265-293, 2000.

Salfati, C. G., James, A. R. et L. Ferguson. Prostitute homicides, A descriptive study, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 23, no 4, p. 505-543, 2008.

Sampson, R. J. et J. H. Laub. Crime and deviance in the life course, Annual Review of Sociology, no 18, p. 63-84, 1992.

Santtila, P., Fritzon, K. et A. L. Tamelander. Linking arson incidents on the basis of crime scene behavior, Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, vol. 19, no 1, p. 1-16, 2004.

Santtila, P., Junkkila, J. et N. K. Sandnabba. Behavioural linking of stranger rapes, Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, no 2, p. 87-103, 2005.

Schafer, J. A., Carter, D. L., Katz-Bannister, A. J. et W. M. Wells. Decision making in traffic stop encounters: A multivariate analysis of police behavior, Police Quarterly, vol. 9, no 2, p. 184-209, 2006.

Schauer, F. Profiles, Probabilities, and Stereotypes, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2003.

Schbley, A. Defining religious terrorism: A causal and anthological profile, Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, vol. 26, no 2, p. 105-134, 2003.

Schbley, A. Toward a common profile of religious terrorism: Some psychosocial determinants of Christian and Islamic terrorists, Police Practice and Research, vol. 7, no 4, p. 275-292, 2006.

Schetky, D. H. Risk assessment of violence in youths, dans D. H. Schetky et E. P. Benedek (dir.) Principles and Practice of Child and Adolescent Forensic Psychiatry (p. 231-246), Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2002.

Schmidt, P. H., Padosch, S. A., Rothschild, M. A. et B. Madea. Forensic case profiling aspects on multiple homicides from the Cologne–Bonn Metropolitan Area 1985–2000, Forensic Science International, no 153, p. 168–173, 2005.

Schultz, M. et B. L. Withrow. Racial profiling and organizational change, Criminal Justice Policy Review, vol. 15, no 4, p. 462-485, 2004.

Shaw, E. D. The role of behavioural research and profiling in malicious cyber insider investigations, Digital investigation, no 3, p. 20-31, 2006.

Sherman, S. J., Cialdini, R. B., Schwartzman, D. F. et K. D. Reynolds. Imagining can heighten or lower the perceived likelihood of contracting a disease: The mediating effect of ease of imagery, dans T. Gilovich, D. Griffin et D. Kahneman, (dir.), Heuristics and Biases, The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, p. 98-119, New York, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Sjöstedt, G., Långström, N., Sturidsson, K. et M. Grann. Stability of modus operandi in sexual offending, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 31, no 5, p. 609-623, 2004.

Smith, L. G. et R. L. Akers. A comparison of recidivism of Florida's community control and prison: A five-year survival analysis, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, vol. 30, no 3, p. 267-292, 1993.

Snook, B, Taylor, P. J. et C. Bennell. Shortcuts to geographic profiling success: A reply to Rossmo, Applied Cognitive Psychology, no 19, p. 655–661, 2005.

Snook, B., Canter, D. et C. Bennell. Predicting the home location of serial offenders: A preliminary comparison of the accuracy of human judges with a geographic profiling system, Behavioral Sciences and the Law, no 20, p. 109-118, 2002.

Snook, B., Cullen, R. M., Mokros, A. et S. Harbort. Serial murderers' spatial decisions: Factors that influence crime location choice, Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, no 2, p. 147-164, 2005.

Snook, B., Eastwood, J., Gendreau, P., Goggin, C. et R. M. Cullen. Taking stock of criminal profiling: A narrative review and meta-analysis, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 34, no 4, p. 437-453, 2007.

Snook, B., Taylor, P. J. et C. Bennell. Geographic profiling: The fast, frugal and accurate way, Applied Cognitive Psychology, no 18, p. 105-121, 2004.

Snook, B., Zito, M. et C. Bennell. On the complexity and accuracy of geographic profiling strategies, Journal of Quantitative Criminology, vol. 21, no 1, p. 1-26, 2005.

Steffensmeier, D. et E. Allan. Gender and crime: Toward a gendered theory of female offending, Annual Review of Sociology, no 22, p. 459-487, 1996.

Stokes, L. D. Legislative and court decisions that promulgated racial profiling, A sociohistorical perspective, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, vol. 23, no 3, p. 263-275, 2007.

Stoolmiller, M. et E. A. Blechman. Substance use is a robust predictor of adolescent recidivism, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 32, no 3, p. 302-328, 2005.

Strano, M. A neural network applied to criminal psychological profiling: An Italian initiative, International Journal Of Offender Therapy And Comparative Criminology, vol. 48, no 4, p. 495-503, 2004.

SUPERIOR COURT OF New Jersey, APPELLATE DIVISION. State v. Fortin, 318 N.J. Super. 557. A-7556-97T3, 1999.

SUPREME COURT OF delaware. Pennell v. State, No. 522, 1989. 602 A.2d 48, 1991.

SUPREME COURT OF LOUISIANA. State v. Code, No. 91-KA-0998. 627 So.2d 1373, 1993.

SUPREME COURT OF NEW JERSEY. State v. Cavallo, A-42. 88 N.J. 508; 443 A.2d 1020; 42 A.L.R.4th 919, 1982.

Taleb, N. N. The Black Swan, The Impact of the Highly Improbable, New York, New York, Random House, 2007.

Tetlock, P. E. Intuitive politicians, theologians, and prosecutors: Exploring the empirical implications of deviant functionalist metaphors, dans T. Gilovich, D. Griffin et D. Kahneman, (dir.), Heuristics and Biases, The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, p. 582-599, New York, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Tita, G. et G. Ridgeway. The impact of gang formation on local patterns of crime, Journal of Research on Crime and Delinquency, vol. 44, no 2, p. 208-237, 2007.

Torres, A. N., Boccaccini, M.T. et H. A. Miller. Perceptions of the validity and utility of criminal profiling among forensic psychologists and psychiatrists, Professional Psychology, Research and Practice, vol. 37, no 1, p. 51-58, 2006.

Trump, K. S. Classroom Killers? Hallway Hostages? How Schools Can Prevent and Manage School Crises, Thousand Oaks, Californie, Corwin Press, Inc., 2000.

Turco, R. N. Psychological profiling, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 34, no 2, p. 147-154, 1990.

Turvey, B. (dir.). Criminal Profiling: An Introduction to Behavioral Evidences Analysis, Londres, R.-U., Academic Press, 1999.

Tversky, A. et D. Kahneman. Extensional versus intuitive reasoning: The conjunction fallacy in probability judgment, dans T. Gilovich, D. Griffin et D. Kahneman, (dir.), Heuristics and Biases, The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, p. 19-48, New York, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Tyler, T. R. Policing in black and white: Ethnic group differences in trust and confidence in the police, Police Quarterly, vol. 8, n o 3, p. 322-342, 2005.

United States Court of Military Appeals. United States v. Meeks, CM 8901737, 35 M.J. 64, 1992.

United States Supreme Court. Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 509 U.S. 579, 1993.

United States Supreme Court. Reid v. Georgia, 448 U.S. 438, 1980.

United States Supreme Court. United States v. Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, 1989.

United States Supreme Court. Whren et al. v. United States, 517 U.S. 806, 1996.

Van Allen, J. Request for Additional Information – Criminal Profiling Study, 2008. (Correspondance de la Police provinciale de l’Ontario, 27 juin 2008).

Van Koppen, P. J. et J. W. De Keijser. Desisting distanc e decay: On the aggregation of individual crime trips, Criminology, vol. 35, no 3, p. 505-515, 1997.

Verniero, P. et P. H. Zoubek. Interim Report of the State Police Review Team Regarding Allegations of Racial Profiling, Office of the Attorney General, New Jersey Department of Law and Public Safety, 1999. Disponible à l’adresse : www.state.nj.us/lps/intm_419.pdf (consulté le 7 avril 2008).

Villeneuve, D. B. et V. L. Quinsey. Predictors of general and violent recidivism among mentally disordered inmates, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 22, no 4, p. 397-410, 1995.

Viscusi, W. K. et R. J. Zeckhauser. Sacrificing Civil Liberties to Reduce Terrorism Risks, Discussion paper no. 401, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard Law School, 2003.

Vossekuil, B., Reddy, M. et R. Fein. Safe School Initiative, An Interim Report on the Prevention of Targeted Violence in Schools, Washington, DC, U.S. Secret Service National Threat Assessment Center, 2000.

Walsh, J. A. et R. B. Taylor. Community structural predictors of spatially aggregated motor vehicle theft rates: Do they replicate? Journal of Criminal Justice, vol. 35, no 3, p. 297, 2007.

Walters, G. D. Risk-appraisal versus self-report in the prediction of criminal justice outcomes, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 33, no 3, p. 379-304, 2006.

Walters, G. D. The psychological inventory of criminal thinking styles, Part I: Reliability and validity, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 22, no 3, p. 307-325, 1995.

Wark, W. K. Les préoccupations relatives à la sécurité nationale et aux droits de la personne au Canada : étude de huit questions cruciales dans le contexte de l'après-11 septembre, 2006. Rapport présenté à la Comission canadienne des droits de la personne (/pdf/ns_sn_fr.pdf).

Warren, J, Reboussin, R., Hazelwood, R., Cummings, A., Gibbs, N. et S. Trumbetta . Crime scene and distance correlates of serial rape, Journal of Quantitative Criminology, vol. 14, no 1, p. 35-59, 1998.

Warren, J., Reboussin, R., Hazelwood, R. et J. Wright. Prediction of rapist type and violence from verbal, physical, and sexual scales, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 6, no 1, p. 55-67, 1991.

Webb, P. et W. A. Kritsonis. Zero-tolerance policies and yout h: protection or profiling? Doctoral Forum, vol. 3 , no 1, p. 1-8, 2006.

Webster, C. D., Hucker, S. J. et H. Bloom. Transcending the actuarial versus clinical polemic in assessing risk for violence, Criminal Justice and Behavior, vol. 29, no 5, p. 659-665, 2002.

Weekes, J. R., Morison, S., Millson, W. et D. Fettig. A comparison of Native, Métis, and Caucasian offender profiles on the MCMI, Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, vol. 27, no 2, p. 187-198, 1995.

Welch, K. Black criminal stereotypes and racial profiling, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, vol. 23, no 3, p. 276-288, 2007.

Wilson, T. D., Centerbar, D. B. et N. Brekke. Mental contamination and the debiasing problem, dans T. Gilovich, D. Griffin et D. Kahneman, (dir.), Heuristics and Biases, The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment, p. 185-200, New York, New York, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Winerman, L. Does profiling really work? APA's Monitor on Psychology, no 35, p. 67, 2004.

Withrow, B. L. Driving while different: A potential theoretical explanation for race-based policing, Criminal Justice Policy Review, no 15, p. 344 – 364, 2004.

Withrow, B. L. When Whren won’t work, The effects of a diminished capacity to initiate a pretextual stop on police officer behavior, Police Quarterly, vol. 10, no 4, p. 351-370, 2007.

Wood, J. Profiling high-risk offenders: A review of 136 cases, The Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, vol. 45, no 3, p. 307-320, 2006.

Woodhams, J. et K. Toye. An empirical test of the assumptions of case linkage and offender profiling with serial commercial robberies, Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, vol. 13, no 1, p. 59-85, 2007.

Wortley, S. et J. Tanner. Data, denials, and confusion, The racial profiling debate in Toronto, Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, vol. 45, no 3, p. 367-389, 2003.

Wortley, S. et J. Tanner. Inflammatory rhetoric? Baseless accusations? A response to Gabor's critique of racial profiling research in Canada, Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice, vol. 47, no 3, p. 581-609, 2005.

Woskett, J., Coyle, I. R. et R. Lincoln. The probity of profiling: Opinions of Australian lawyers on the utility of criminal profiling in court, Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, vol. 14, no 2, p. 306-314, 2007.

Yokota, K., Fujita, G., Watanabe, K., Yoshimoto, K. et T. Wachi. Application of the behavioral investigative support system for profiling perpetrators of serial sexual assaults, Behavioral Sciences and the Law, no 25, p. 841-856, 2007.

Page précédente Table des matières